Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Research Articles

Thermal management system for stable EV battery operation with composite phase change materials

Li-ion battery has been one of the cornerstone of the mobile era especially given the burst sales of Electrical vehicles (EV) which have eclipsed that of internal combustion engine vehicles over last decade. While extensive advances in smart production and technologies make it booming to the development of EV, there have been frequently reported fatal fire incidents originated from excessive thermal hazards of Li-ion batteries. In this paper, we developed a new Li-ion battery thermal management system, by making use of porous Aluminum structure as skeleton and Phase Change Materials (PCMs) as filler, to maintain its optimal operating temperature below 35 °C within a small tolerance range of ± 1 °C fluctuation by continuous heat absorption and heat release during the phase changes of the PCM. The thermal stress and energy consumption in the internal battery pack caused by temperature fluctuations can thus be reduced, ultimately sustaining the overall functional life span of the battery. We envision that our work will advance the operation of EV battery and incubate a versatile framework ranging from thermal management to battery assembly.

Clean energy synergy with electric vehicles: Insights into carbon footprint

This study empirically examines the impact of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and clean energy adoption on carbon footprints. With growing concerns over climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the transition to electric vehicles and clean energy sources has gained significant attention as potential solutions. This research investigates the relationship between the adoption of EVs and clean energy technologies and their subsequent effect on carbon footprints. The study applied the Generalised Method Moments (GMM) on the data sourced from the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 2011–2021 covering 27 countries. The findings reveal a strong correlation between the adoption of EVs and reductions in carbon footprints. It shows that a 1 % increase in renewable electricity output would result in a 0.5 % decline in carbon footprints. This implies that, as EV sales increase, the overall carbon emissions from the transportation sector decrease, primarily due to the lower emissions associated with electric vehicles compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Additionally, the study finds that the integration of clean energy sources into the electricity grid further contributes to carbon footprint reductions. The use of renewable energy in charging EVs minimizes the indirect emissions associated with electricity generation. The research concludes that the widespread adoption of EVs and clean energy sources has the potential to significantly reduce carbon footprints and mitigate the impact of climate change. However, it emphasizes the importance of continued technological advancements, increased availability of charging infrastructure, and supportive government policies to accelerate the transition towards a low-carbon transportation and energy system. Therefore, the study highlights the need for collaborative efforts among governments, industry stakeholders, and individuals to foster sustainable practices and achieve a more environmentally friendly future.

Review of Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles

This paper presents an overview of the status and future prospects of fuel-cell electric vehicles (FC-EVs). As global concerns about emissions escalate, FC-EVs have emerged as a promising substitute for traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. This paper discusses the fundamentals of fuel-cell technology considering the major types of fuel cells that have been researched and delves into the most suitable fuel cells for FC-EV applications, including comparisons with mainstream vehicle technologies. The present state of FC-EVs, ongoing research, and the challenges and opportunities that need to be accounted for are discussed. Furthermore, the comparison between promising proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technologies used in EVs provides valuable insights into their respective strengths and challenges. By synthesizing these aspects, the paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding and facilitate decision-making for future advancements in sustainable FC-EV transportation, thereby contributing to the realization of a cleaner, greener, and more environmentally friendly future.

Fire Risk Mitigation Strategies for Electric and Hydrogen Vehicle Car Parks

As the use of eco-friendly vehicles, such as electric and hydrogen vehicles, is rapidly increasing, the related infrastructure is also expanding, and they have become common in parking areas. The fire safety design of a car park is based on the existing data of internal combustion engine vehicles; therefore, the characteristics of eco-friendly vehicles must be reflected. This study investigated the heat release rate of internal combustion engine vehicles, electric vehicles, and hydrogen vehicles using real-scale fire test data and analyzed the effects of curb weight and battery capacity. The fire growth rate and maximum heat release rate of electric and hydrogen vehicles were similar to those of internal combustion engine vehicles, except for the batteries and hydrogen gas, which are the energy sources of electric and hydrogen vehicles, respectively. When ignited from the battery of an electric vehicle, the fire grew rapidly. When the thermally activated pressure relief device was activated in the storage vessel of a hydrogen vehicle, the heat release rate instantaneously increased to 14.5 MW. To improve fire safety in car parks, the curb weight and fire resistance structure must be designed to reflect the increase in plastic interior materials and battery capacity of vehicles, and firefighting facilities must be installed based on vehicles with greater fire severity.

Life Cycle Cost Assessment of Electric, Hybrid, and Conventional Vehicles in Bangladesh: A Comparative Analysis

The automobile industry is shifting from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) or electric vehicles (EVs) extremely fast. Our calculation regarding the most popular private car brand in Bangladesh, Toyota, shows that the life cycle cost (LCC) of a Toyota BZ3 (EV), USD 43,409, is more expensive than a Toyota Aqua (HEV) and Toyota Prius (HEV), but cheaper than a Toyota Axio (ICEV) and Toyota Allion (ICEV). It has been found that about a 25% reduction in the acquisition cost of a Toyota BZ3 would lower its LCC to below others. EVs can be a good choice for those who travel a lot. Changes in electricity prices have little effect upon the LCC of EVs. With the expected decline in the annual price for batteries, which is between 6 and 9%, and the improvement of their capacities, EVs will be more competitive with other vehicles by 2030 or even earlier. EVs will dominate the market since demand for alternative fuel-powered vehicles is growing due to their environmental and economic advantages.

Assessment of recent UK fire safety guidance for covered car parks and electric vehicles

Guidance issued by organisations such as fire and rescue services, insurers and governmental bodies across the UK for the fire safety design of covered car parks is changing in response to the projected rapid growth in electric vehicle (EV) use. This new guidance is impacting the provision of parking bays, particularly in residential and mixed-use buildings. This paper considers whether EVs in covered car parks pose a greater fire risk than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) using recent data on the ignition frequency and the burning characteristics of EVs. The recommended mitigating fire safety measures within the new guidance are assessed with a focus on detection, smoke ventilation, sprinkler systems and structural performance as these have the potential to have the greatest impact on a building fire safety design. The paper indicates that the recommendations may not align with available evidence which challenges a balanced approach to fire safety requirements to prevent over-specification that could affect the feasibility of building designs. This paper summarises recent fire safety guidance in the UK on the use of electric vehicles (EVs) in covered car parks. Factors that contribute to the risk posed by EVs are investigated and practical design values for heat release and fire growth are suggested. Key recommended fire safety measures proposed in the guidance have been assessed against existing evidence. The findings are useful to stakeholders involved in the design of covered car parks to allow a balanced approach to their fire safety requirements.

Systematic literature review of urban charging infrastructure planning over time

The transition from Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles to Electric Vehicles (EVs) is imperative to achieve the goal of reducing transport-related greenhouse gas emissions by 90 % in 2050. As urbanization intensifies, vehicle miles in urban environments increase and cities already consume 75 % of global energy, there is a pressing need for efficient charging infrastructure (CI) placement tailored to urban environments. Accordingly, this paper conducts a systematic literature review to outline prevailing research and derive requirements for a future CI model adaptable to urban environments. Analysis of N = 57 studies underscores the necessity for agent-based demand models to capture the intricate behaviors of EV drivers, which are currently underrepresented due to their data-heavy nature (n = 28 flow-based; n = 18 node-based). Furthermore, with a projected surge of 800 % in CI installations in Europe by 2030, strategic placement according to demand and urban-specific requirements is paramount. Still, multi-periodicity considerations are largely absent in current literature (n = 50). Geometric segmentation is presented as a solution to mitigate partial coverage issues. Ultimately, agent-based models, coupled with geometric segmentation, emerge as pivotal requirements for future CI models in urban environments, facilitating the transition to EVs, aligning with emission reduction targets, ensuring resource efficiency, and fostering urban sustainability.

A novel approach to modeling and experimenting a solar-fed H6 configuration for battery swapping stations in rural and commercial areas using a dual phase CLLC DC–DC resonant converter

In order to further the use of clean energy, the transition from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) was initiated globally. In the coming days, there will be a need for more EV charging stations in rural and commercial areas. The installation of new charging infrastructure for different vehicles with different voltage specifications in order to charge batteries are expensive with limited availability. Also fast charging is not possible in rural areas. To overcome this issue, the battery swapping station is a good option. In this paper, a new solar-powered dual-phase CLLC DC–DC resonant converter is proposed to test battery swapping. An equivalent circuit has been derived analytically, and the optimal design of the magnetic components for the proposed converter has been derived. Simulation has been carried out for the proposed system. The proposed system was tested with a prototype set-up of a 100 W lithium-ion battery bank of equal and unequal voltage levels in an open-loop condition using Analog Discovery-2. Introducing the H6 concept in the proposed converter has the features of low stress across switches, use of higher dc grid voltage, low switching losses due to the dual phase resonant compensation network, and a multi-port isolated output system. Apart from battery swapping applications it can be utilized for Energy Storage Solution [ESS].

Long-Term Planning for a Mixed Urban Freight Fleet with EVs and ICEVs in the USA

Commercial electric vehicles (EVs) have increasingly gained interest from urban freight companies in the past decade due to the introduction of economic and policy drivers. Although these factors promote urban freight electrification, some barriers hinder the transition to fully electric fleets, such as the significant monetary investment required to replace the current internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) and the lack of readily available electric freight vehicles. Due to these barriers, for the foreseeable future, urban freight companies will operate mixed fleets with a combination of EVs and ICEVs to balance their cost/benefit trade-offs. This intermediate operational stage will allow companies to adjust their operations, test EVs, and decide if a fully electric fleet is the best choice. This paper focuses on urban last-mile deliveries in the USA and proposes a long-term planning model to explore the effects of external factors (i.e., fuel costs) on planning decisions (i.e., EV share) for a mixed fleet. In the context of this paper long-term planning is the planning for the infrastructure needed for the introduction of EVs (i.e., fleet composition and charging station location). The goal of the proposed model is to minimize the fuel, EV, ICEV, and EV charger costs. The results show that the EV share of a mixed fleet is affected by gasoline and electricity prices and the distances traveled in a given network. This paper shows that the EV share of a mixed fleet increases when the gasoline cost increases and the electricity cost decreases.

Cost analysis of different vehicle technologies for semi-flexible transit operations

In low-demand areas, semi-flexible transit system (SFT) operated by battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can reduce operational costs and achieve zero emissions, allowing SFT to be used more widely, and transit agencies to benefit more significantly. This paper is aimed at analyzing the effect of the additional requirements of BEVs on the cost efficiency of SFT services while considering different headways and slack time to accommodate route-deviation. Analytical models are used for detailed estimation of the total cost, including operator, user, and environmental costs, allowing a comparison with internal combustion engine (ICEV) vehicle technology, and three vehicle sizes: minivans, standard vans, and minibuses. Study results can be used to evaluate budget requirements to upgrade an existing ICEV based standard bus service along an underperforming low demand route to a BEV based SFT service. The application of the proposed methodology is demonstrated for a low-demand bus route in Regina, Canada.

Comparison of frontal crash compatibility metrics between battery-electric and internal-combustion-engine passenger vehicles

Objective The objective of this study was to determine if there are any emerging issues related to battery-electric vehicles’ (BEVs’) geometry, force distribution, and extra weight that may make them more aggressive partners in front-to-front crashes through comparisons of stiffness metrics derived from crash tests. Methods We examined load cell wall data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration’s (NHTSA’s) New Car Assessment Program full-width frontal crash test at 56 km/h. Fourteen BEVs, ranging in class from small cars to large SUVs, were compared with 92 internal-combustion-engine (ICE) vehicles, ranging in class from small cars to midsize pickups. We selected vehicles based on the test results available in the NHTSA Vehicle Crash Test Database, and there were no tests of battery-electric (BE) pickups. Data included load-cell-wall force-time histories and longitudinal vehicle acceleration from the body structure. We constructed force-displacement diagrams and calculated static, dynamic, energy-equivalent, and initial front-end-stiffness metrics from load cell wall forces, vehicle acceleration, and static front-end crush measurements for each vehicle. Linear regression models were applied to the metrics for comparison between powertrains. Results BE cars and BE SUVs weighed more than their ICE counterparts, on average 369 kg and 286 kg more, respectively. Initial (200 mm and 400 mm), energy-equivalent and dynamic front-end-stiffness metrics, average height of force, and individual maximum forces, when compared with vehicle shadow, were not statistically different between powertrains. Static stiffness (p = 0.04) and initial stiffness (300 mm; p = 0.05) decreased for BEVs with greater shadow and increased with greater shadow for ICE vehicles. When controlling for vehicle shadow, dynamic crush was greater (p = 0.01), the percentage of center force was lower (p < 0.001), and maximum peak force was higher (p = 0.01) for BEVs compared with ICE vehicles. For the Kia Niro BEV and ICE pair, the 329 kg heavier BEV had a 165 mm longer crush distance, which resulted in lower forces and stiffness metrics compared with the traditional ICE counterpart. Conclusion Overall, this study indicates that current BEVs are not excessively aggressive in terms of stiffness metrics for frontal crash compatibility compared with ICE vehicles.

An Enhanced MPPT Approach Based on CUSA for Grid-Integrated Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging Station

Because of the fluctuating demands for electricity and the growing awareness of the need to protect the environment from global warming and the depletion of nonrenewable natural resources, battery-powered electric vehicles, or EVs, are being used in the transportation sector as an alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles. However, charging these EVs with conventional fossil fuels is neither economically sustainable nor structurally viable. Therefore, this manuscript proposes a renewable energy-powered EV charging station featuring a combination of solar energy, standby battery systems, sophisticated control techniques such as neural network-integrated grids, the enhanced Cuckoo Search Algorithm for Maximum Power Point Tracking, and the Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller. This idea beats current methods and presents a viable way to drive the EV revolution while lessening environmental effects. It maximizes energy management and guarantees a steady power supply even in erratic weather. Grid integration ensures the consistency of power supplies at charging terminals. When compared to other algorithms that have been investigated in the literature, the designed algorithm exhibits excellent performance. Grid integration, in addition to the standby battery, is essential in ensuring that the charging station has a constant power supply, even during unpredictable weather.

Design and optimization of energy supplying system for electric vehicles by mobile charge stations

Electric vehicles (EVs) have been recommended worldwide as an alternative to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. However, it will be difficult to supply enough energy to EVs using existing fixed charging stations (FCSs) and thus a mobile charging station (MCS) is proposed which has the advantage of being able to quickly and inexpensively provide charging services at any time and place. In this study, an energy supply system using MCS has been designed to verify a business model for South Korea. First, the entire country was divided into eight areas, and the population density center of each district was calculated. Second, BCS candidate sites were selected based on the population density center and EV numbers in each district. Third, by designing a business model, optimization was performed to maximize the overall profit. The result was calculated to meet the constraints such as meeting the local electricity demand and generate an annual profit of 224 million dollars. It is also predicted that this revenue could increase by 1959% by 2035 as the number of EVs increases. These results show that MCS can generate sufficient profits as a business and contribute to reduce carbon emissions.

Blockchain based crowdsourcing framework for Vehicle-to-Vehicle charging

Electric Vehicles (EVs) have become a promising solution to entirely replace traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. EV owners face the “Range Anxiety” problem which is the fear that their remaining charge would not be enough to reach their destination. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) charging is currently being used in exchanging energy between EVs. Most of the existing energy V2V frameworks depend on a centralized server that manages the energy exchange. However, these solutions may suffer from privacy leakage and misbehaving platforms. To overcome these limitations, the paper proposes a blockchain-based crowdsourcing framework for V2V charging. The framework features include registering users, maintaining user information, clustering requesters (charging tasks), collecting preferences lists from requesters and providers, and lastly selecting the requester-provider charging pair as well as the corresponding meeting point. These features are implemented using three types of smart contracts: User Management Contract, Task Management Contract, and Solution Management Contract while guaranteeing the transparency of the system and overcoming the main limitations of the centralized solutions. Experiment results with real-life dataset show that the proposed framework achieves a comparable performance at reasonable paid costs and execution times.

Sustainable Solutions: Integrating Renewable Energy and Electric Vehicles for Cleaner Operations

In the face of escalating environmental concerns and the urgent need to mitigate carbon emissions, integrating renewable energy and electric vehicles (EVs) has emerged as a promising avenue for achieving cleaner and more sustainable operations across various sectors. This paper explores the synergistic potential of combining renewable energy sources with EV technology to revolutionize energy consumption and transportation systems. The first part of the paper discusses the pressing environmental challenges posed by traditional energy sources and internal combustion engine vehicles, emphasizing the need for a transition towards cleaner alternatives. It highlights the detrimental effects of fossil fuel combustion on air quality, public health, and climate change, underscoring the imperative for sustainable energy solutions. Next, the paper delves into the advantages of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower in providing clean and abundant energy. It examines the advancements in renewable energy technologies, including decreasing costs and increasing efficiency, making them increasingly viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Subsequently, the paper explores the pivotal role of electric vehicles in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependency on fossil fuels in the transportation sector. It discusses the environmental benefits of EVs, including zero tailpipe emissions and lower lifecycle emissions compared to conventional vehicles.

Investigation of Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles

In today's world, internal combustion engine vehicles are widely used. These vehicles cause harmful emissions as they use fossil fuels for engine propulsion and vehicle movement. To address this issue, electric vehicles have been considered as a solution. In electric vehicles, electric motors are used instead of traditional internal combustion engines and the necessary electrical energy is supplied from battery packs. In this way, electric vehicles do not cause harmful emissions to the environment. If the energy required for electric vehicle charging stations is obtained from renewable energy systems, electric vehicles will be zero-emission vehicles. Battery packs, that provide energy for electric vehicles, typically consist of rechargeable Lithium-ion battery groups and they can be charged using fast charging technology. In this study, the future of transportation, electric vehicles and the standards and technologies used in electric vehicle charging stations have been examined. Additionally, an electric vehicle system has been designed using MATLAB/Simscape.

Factors influencing household VMT considering differences between ICE and electric vehicles

AbstractThis study examines factors affecting household vehicle miles traveled (VMT) with a focus on the differences between electric vehicles (EVs) and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). This study mainly utilizes detailed individual‐level data from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey‐California Add‐on (2017 NHTS‐CA). We first classify households into three groups such as (1) households with only ICEVs, (2) households with only EVs, and (3) households with both ICEVs and EVs. We then employ ordinary least square regression models to analyze the determinants of household VMT across three groups. Second, we focus on households with both ICEVs and EVs to look at the substitute patterns between ICEVs and EVs. We employ a fractional logit model to analyze the factors affecting the share of EVs' VMT in total household VMT. Key findings are as follows. First, households with only EVs tend to have lower household VMT than others. Second, available charging stations near residential locations lead to longer households VMT in households with only EVs. Third, employment density has different effects on household VMT by groups. For instance, high employment density leads to shorter household VMT in households with only ICEVs and with both ICEVs and EVs. On the other hand, high employment density reveals a statistically positive effect on household VMT in households with only EVs. Lastly, in households with both ICEVs and EVs, the share of EVs' VMT is likely to increase in total household VMT if EVs are used more for work trips and shopping/family errands.

Assessing green methanol vehicles' deployment with life cycle assessment-system dynamics model

Due to the high CO2 emissions during the coal-to-methanol process, conventional coal-to-methanol vehicles' life cycle environmental impact is significant. As the world's largest market for methanol vehicle applications, China is exploring a ‘green methanol vehicles’ route: using CO2-to-methanol or biomass-to-methanol in internal combustion engine vehicles. However, the economy, effectiveness in reducing carbon emissions, and changes in resource consumption of green methanol vehicles have yet to be investigated. This study first conducts a ‘Resource-Environment-Economy’ life cycle assessment on vehicles from different routes, including green methanol vehicles. Next, this study builds a system dynamics model based on the Resource-Environment-Economy assessment boundaries to predict the development trend of green methanol vehicles in the designed scenarios. CO2-to-methanol vehicle emits 24% less CO2 over their life cycle than gasoline vehicle, which can be a reasonable alternative from 2028. By 2030, biomass-to-methanol vehicle has a high development potential with minimal energy and less water consumption. It suggests that green methanol vehicles be incorporated into new energy vehicles and enjoy preferential policies.

Are electric vehicles really the optimal option for the transportation sector in China to approach pollution reduction and carbon neutrality goals?

Profound worldwide fleet electrification is thought to be the primary route for achieving the target of carbon neutrality. However, when and how electrification can help mitigate environmental impacts and carbon emissions in the transport sector remains unclear. Herein, the overall life-cycle environmental impacts and carbon saving range of two typical A-class vehicles in China, including electric vehicle (EV) and internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), were quantified by the life cycle assessment model for endpoint damage with localization parameters. The results showed that the EV outperformed the ICEV for the total environment impact after a travel distance of 39,153 km and for carbon emissions after 32,292 km. The ICEV was more carbon-friendly only when the driving distance was less than 3229 km/a. Considering a full lifespan travel distance of 150,000 km, the whole life-cycle average environmental impacts of EV and ICEV were calculated as 8.6 and 17.5 mPt/km, respectively, but the EV had 2.3 times higher impacts than the ICEV in the production phase. In addition, the EV unit carbon emission was 140 g/km, 46.8% lower than that of the ICEV. Finally, three potential reduction scenarios were considered: cleaner power mix, energy efficiency improvement and composite scenario. These scenarios contributed 19.1%, 13.0% and 32.1% reductions, respectively. However, achieving carbon peak and neutrality goals in China remains a great challenge unless fossil fuels are replaced by renewable energy. The research can provide scientific reference for the method and practice of emission reduction link identification, eco-driving choice and emission reduction path formulation.

The transition to electrified vehicles: Evaluating the labor demand of manufacturing conventional versus battery electric vehicle powertrains

The shift from traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) to electric vehicles (EVs) has raised concerns about displacement of automotive manufacturing labor. Prior studies have mixed findings, and have been hindered by a lack of shop floor-level data on the labor hours required for ICEV and EV manufacturing. We collect detailed data from leading automotive manufacturers on the production process steps and labor inputs required to build key ICEV and battery electric vehicle (BEV) powertrain components. Our novel data set covers 252 process steps, with data on a further 78 process steps from the existing literature. We build a production process model that estimates the labor hours required to produce ICEV and BEV powertrain components at different production volumes and labor efficiency levels. We find that, accounting for production and assembly of battery packs, the labor intensity required for the manufacturing of BEV powertrain components is larger than for ICEV powertrain components. This difference in labor intensity holds even when comparing the highest-efficiency estimates for BEV production with the lowest efficiency-estimates for ICEVs. This finding depends on our shop-floor operations modeling approach and could not be derived from recent approaches focusing on part counts. Our results imply that vehicle electrification could lead to more automotive manufacturing jobs, at least in the short- to medium-term. While there are potential jobs to support transitions for incumbent automotive workers, the feasibility of these transitions will depend on geographic co-location of new battery production capacity with current ICEV production sites, and on matching between the skills of the automotive workforce and the demands of new EV jobs.